{"id":11493,"date":"2013-10-31T09:51:14","date_gmt":"2013-10-31T09:51:14","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.ch.imperial.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?p=11493"},"modified":"2023-03-06T17:39:57","modified_gmt":"2023-03-06T17:39:57","slug":"the-world-ash-tree-of-the-computer-hardware-industry-crystalline-silicon-from-1854","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?p=11493","title":{"rendered":"The world ash tree of the computer hardware industry&#8230; crystalline silicon from 1854."},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"kcite-section\" kcite-section-id=\"11493\">\n<p>The element <strong>silicon<\/strong> best represents the digital era of the mid 20th century to the present; without its crystalline form, there would be no computers (or this blog). Although it was first prepared in pure amorphous (powder) form around 1823<span id=\"cite_ITEM-11493-0\" name=\"citation\"><a href=\"#ITEM-11493-0\">[1]<\/a><\/span> by Berzelius, it was not until 1854 that Henri Sainte-Claire Deville made it in crystalline form, using metallic aluminium to isolate it. He described it <span id=\"cite_ITEM-11493-0\" name=\"citation\"><a href=\"#ITEM-11493-0\">[1]<\/a><\/span> as having a &#8220;metallic luster&#8221;.<\/p>\n<p>Well, an actual sample of his silicon has survived since he prepared it in 1854,<sup>\u2021\u00a0<\/sup>and so this tiny crystal could reasonably be argued to constitute the origin of the modern computer hardware industry.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter  wp-image-11494\" alt=\"Silicon\" src=\"http:\/\/www.ch.imperial.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/10\/Silicon.jpg\" width=\"461\" height=\"303\" \/><\/p>\n<p>It is worth juxtaposing this on a modern sample of the element (below). There is indeed a metallic luster (Deville&#8217;s sample is about 2mm in size, did I imagine it too having a luster?). Oh, the artist in me came out when I photographed the below. The red tinge is because I illuminated the crystals with light from a neon tube (an original sample does still exist at <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ucl.ac.uk\/chemistry\/history\/chemical_history\/slides\/neon\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">University College London<\/a>, not more than a few km from where I write this blog).<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/10\/IMG_2263-872x1024.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"450\" height=\"528\" class=\"aligncenter size-large wp-image-25916\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/10\/IMG_2263-872x1024.jpeg 872w, https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/10\/IMG_2263-255x300.jpeg 255w, https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/10\/IMG_2263-768x902.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/10\/IMG_2263.jpeg 1090w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 450px) 100vw, 450px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter  wp-image-11496\" alt=\"Silicon1\" src=\"http:\/\/www.ch.imperial.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/10\/Silicon1.jpg\" width=\"377\" height=\"232\" \/><\/p>\n<p>And your powers of observation do not have to be finely honed to spot another truly original elemental sample above the silicon. This one is even older, dating (as the caption says) back to 1826 and its discovery in that year by Antoine Balard.<sup>\u2021<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Original element samples, by definition, are both finite and rare. The Royal Institution in London (again just down the road from where I am) has perhaps the largest collection of <a href=\"http:\/\/www.rigb.org\/our-history\/iconic-objects\/iconic-objects-list\/davy-samples\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">mainstream elements (groups I and II) prepared by Davy<\/a> there,<sup>\u2020<\/sup> but there is no catalogue I am aware of which lists all the original elemental samples still existing and their location in the world. I suspect the majority are no longer around. But I would welcome anyone who knows of the location of\u00a0such to post a comment, perchance even a photo, here.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p><sup>\u2021<\/sup>The provenance is impeccable. <sup>\u2020<\/sup> Potassium (1807), sodium, barium, calcium, magnesium, strontium and boron. <a href=\"http:\/\/periodictable.com\/Elements\/014\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">See here<\/a> for photos of modern samples.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter  wp-image-11504\" alt=\"all\" src=\"http:\/\/www.ch.imperial.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/10\/all.jpg\" width=\"289\" height=\"304\" \/><\/p>\n<h2>References<\/h2>\n    <ol class=\"kcite-bibliography csl-bib-body\"><\/ol>\n\n<\/div> <!-- kcite-section 11493 -->","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>The element silicon best represents the digital era of the mid 20th century to the present; without its crystalline form, there would be no computers (or this blog). Although it was first prepared in pure amorphous (powder) form around 1823 by Berzelius, it was not until 1854 that Henri Sainte-Claire Deville made it in crystalline [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"activitypub_content_warning":"","activitypub_content_visibility":"","activitypub_max_image_attachments":5,"activitypub_interaction_policy_quote":"anyone","activitypub_status":"","footnotes":"","jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_post_already_shared":true,"jetpack_social_options":{"image_generator_settings":{"template":"highway","default_image_id":0,"font":"","enabled":false},"version":2},"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false},"categories":[4],"tags":[1149,646,1148,1147,1078],"ppma_author":[2661],"class_list":["post-11493","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-interesting-chemistry","tag-antoine-balard","tag-artist","tag-henri-sainte-claire-deville","tag-royal-institution-in-london","tag-university-college-london"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.7 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>The world ash tree of the computer hardware industry... crystalline silicon from 1854. - Henry Rzepa&#039;s Blog<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?p=11493\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_GB\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"The world ash tree of the computer hardware industry... crystalline silicon from 1854. - Henry Rzepa&#039;s Blog\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"The element silicon best represents the digital era of the mid 20th century to the present; without its crystalline form, there would be no computers (or this blog). Although it was first prepared in pure amorphous (powder) form around 1823 by Berzelius, it was not until 1854 that Henri Sainte-Claire Deville made it in crystalline [&hellip;]\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?p=11493\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Henry Rzepa&#039;s Blog\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2013-10-31T09:51:14+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2023-03-06T17:39:57+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"http:\/\/www.ch.imperial.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/10\/Silicon.jpg\" \/>\n<meta name=\"author\" content=\"Henry Rzepa\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Written by\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Henry Rzepa\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Estimated reading time\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"2 minutes\" \/>\n<!-- \/ Yoast SEO plugin. -->","yoast_head_json":{"title":"The world ash tree of the computer hardware industry... crystalline silicon from 1854. - Henry Rzepa&#039;s Blog","robots":{"index":"index","follow":"follow","max-snippet":"max-snippet:-1","max-image-preview":"max-image-preview:large","max-video-preview":"max-video-preview:-1"},"canonical":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?p=11493","og_locale":"en_GB","og_type":"article","og_title":"The world ash tree of the computer hardware industry... crystalline silicon from 1854. - Henry Rzepa&#039;s Blog","og_description":"The element silicon best represents the digital era of the mid 20th century to the present; without its crystalline form, there would be no computers (or this blog). 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Thus he covered the first deuterated drug receiving FDA approval last year, having first reviewed the\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;General&quot;","block_context":{"text":"General","link":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?cat=1"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":16402,"url":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?p=16402","url_meta":{"origin":11493,"position":1},"title":"The mechanism of silylether deprotection using a tetra-alkyl ammonium fluoride.","author":"Henry Rzepa","date":"May 25, 2016","format":false,"excerpt":"The substitution of a nucleofuge (a good leaving group) by a nucleophile at a carbon centre\u00a0occurs with inversion\u00a0of configuration at the carbon, the mechanism being known by\u00a0the term\u00a0SN2\u00a0(a story I have also told\u00a0in this post). Such displacement at silicon famously proceeds by a quite different mechanism, which\u00a0I here quantify with\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;reaction mechanism&quot;","block_context":{"text":"reaction mechanism","link":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?cat=1086"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":16441,"url":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?p=16441","url_meta":{"origin":11493,"position":2},"title":"An alternative mechanism for nucleophilic substitution at silicon using a tetra-alkyl ammonium fluoride.","author":"Henry Rzepa","date":"May 27, 2016","format":false,"excerpt":"In the previous post, I explored the mechanism for nucleophilic substitution at a silicon centre proceeding via retention of configuration involving a Berry-like pseudorotation.\u00a0Here\u00a0I probe an alternative route involving inversion of configuration at the Si centre. Both stereochemical modes are known to occur, depending on the leaving group, solvent and\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;reaction mechanism&quot;","block_context":{"text":"reaction mechanism","link":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?cat=1086"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":783,"url":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?p=783","url_meta":{"origin":11493,"position":3},"title":"Capturing penta-coordinate carbon! (Part 1).","author":"Henry Rzepa","date":"September 22, 2009","format":false,"excerpt":"The bimolecular nucleophilic substitution reaction at saturated carbon is an icon of organic chemistry, and is better known by its mechanistic label, SN2. It is normally a slow reaction, with half lives often measured in hours. This implies a significant barrier to reaction (~15-20 kcal\/mol) for the transition state, shown\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;Hypervalency&quot;","block_context":{"text":"Hypervalency","link":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?cat=7"},"img":{"alt_text":"The Sn2 transition state","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2009\/09\/sn2.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":17805,"url":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?p=17805","url_meta":{"origin":11493,"position":4},"title":"Silyl cations?","author":"Henry Rzepa","date":"March 23, 2017","format":false,"excerpt":"It is not only the non-classical norbornyl cation that has proved controversial in the past. A colleague mentioned at lunch (thanks Paul!) that tri-coordinate group 14 cations such as R3Si+ have also had an interesting history. Here I take a brief look at some of these systems. Their initial characterisations,\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;crystal_structure_mining&quot;","block_context":{"text":"crystal_structure_mining","link":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?cat=1745"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/03\/164-1024x748.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":15313,"url":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?p=15313","url_meta":{"origin":11493,"position":5},"title":"Some examples of open access publications citing managed research data (RDM).","author":"Henry Rzepa","date":"January 5, 2016","format":false,"excerpt":"In May 2015, the EPSRC funding council in the UK required researchers to publish the outcomes of the funded work to include an OA (open access) version of the narrative and to cite the managed research data used to support the research with\u00a0a DOI (digital object identifier). I was discussing\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;Chemical IT&quot;","block_context":{"text":"Chemical IT","link":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/?cat=2"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]}],"jetpack_likes_enabled":false,"authors":[{"term_id":2661,"user_id":1,"is_guest":0,"slug":"admin","display_name":"Henry Rzepa","avatar_url":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/897b6740f7f599bca7942cdf7d7914af5988937ae0e3869ab09aebb87f26a731?s=96&d=blank&r=g","0":null,"1":"","2":"","3":"","4":"","5":"","6":"","7":"","8":""}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/11493","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=11493"}],"version-history":[{"count":13,"href":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/11493\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":25917,"href":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/11493\/revisions\/25917"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=11493"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=11493"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=11493"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ch.ic.ac.uk\/rzepa\/blog\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fppma_author&post=11493"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}